Description
The mosque is a symbol of Islam and the most important building type in the Islamic world, which today encompasses 40 countries and a fifth of the world’s population. Of all the Abrahamic religions, it is Islam that is currently expanding most rapidly. So what should a building look like whose name when translated means a “place of prostration”? The task of designing an architectonic form for the worship of a god that is invisible and in addition is prohibited from depiction has never been easy. On the one hand, their creators were afraid to construct glorious constructions for fear of falling into idolatry. On the other hand, their buildings could be no less monumental than those of the Christian faith. The difficulty arises as a result of the Islamic prohibition of figurative representation: the Hadith, the book of the words and deeds of the prophet Muhammad, states: “The makers of these pictures will be punished on the Day of Resurrection and it will be said to them, ‘Give life to what you have created.’” Or elsewhere in the same book: “Such people as paint these pictures will receive the severest punishment on the Day of Resurrection.” Accordingly, Islam – unlike Christianity – is characterised by a lack of visual symbols. A further difficulty is that Islamic architecture, which is highly contextual and predominantly characterised by small elements, does not lend itself to being a source of inspiration for monumentality.
In the year 570, Muhammad, the prophet of the third monotheistic religion, was born in Mecca, the son of a merchant. At the age of 40, whilst meditating, Muhammad first heard the Archangel Gabriel’s voice commanding him to recite in the name of Allah. Muhammad began preaching for the “One and Only God” but was initially largely met with ridicule and hostility. Under the threat of death, he left Mecca and went into exile, migrating with a small group of followers in 622 to the oasis settlement of Yathrib. There, in what later became known as Medina, he founded the first Muslim state. After the death of the prophet in 632, the new religion spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond, into North Africa and southern Spain. Later, Islam expanded further throughout the Persian Sassanid Empire and extended as far as India. Within a century of the foundation of the new religion, the Koran and the Sharia – the body of Islamic religious law that describes ritual obligations such as prayer, fasting, charity and pilgrimage – had spread under the rule of Muhammad’s successors, the Caliphs, over an extensive territory.
Muslims are less dependent on buildings devoted to worship than Jews and Christians. The rite of prayer is itself sufficient, whether undertaken at home or in the open. Prayer in a group, however, is considered more virtuous. A mosque is primarily a hall in which men and women kneel in rows on the floor and prostrate themselves in prayer in the direction of Mecca. By the 7th century, the following elements were already constituent parts of a mosque: the qibla wall which faces in the direction of Mecca; the mihrab, a niche or depression in the qibla wall from which the Imam leads prayers; and the minaret, a high tower from which the call for prayer is more audible. A mobile lectern, or kursi, on which the Koran was placed was also common. For Friday prayers, a minbar, a pulpit raised on several steps was created, sometimes along with a dikka, a raised tribune in the centre of the room from which the Imam’s prayers are repeated for the rows at the back. Fountains located in a forecourt allowed Muslims to conduct ritual purification before prayers. These usually offered sufficient space for several people to wash themselves with cold running water.
Martin Frishman, diagram of a mosque and its principal elements: qibla wall (1), mihrab (2), minbar (3), dikka (4), kursi (5), fountain (6), minaret (7), portal (8)
Over and above its essentially religious importance, the mosque also serves a social function, which largely determines the programming of its remaining spaces. The mosque is not solely for prayer but is also visited on social and family occasions. Believers are served tea and dates and therefore even the smallest of village mosques has a place for preparing tea. Larger mosques include spaces for religious instruction, to teach courses on the local language and seminars on cultural integration. In addition, there are rooms for women who are forbidden from prayer during menstruation and in the first 40 days after giving birth.
Over the course of the history of Islam, four basic types of mosques have arisen in western and central Asia and in North Africa: the Arab hypostyle mosque, the Persian four-iwan mosque, the Indian three-dome mosque and the Turkish central-dome mosque
Martin Frishman, schematic overview of the four types of mosques: Arab hypostyle mosque (1), Persian four-iwan mosque (2), Indian three-dome mosque (3), Turkish central-dome mosque (4)
In light of the rapid expansion of the Islamic community during the lifetime of the prophet, the need for built constructions providing space for undisturbed communal prayer soon arose. The first mosque was built at Muhammad’s behest in Yathrib. Enclosed by an earthen wall, it was a typical Arabian courtyard dwelling on a square plan. From here, the muezzin chanted the call for prayer. The first mosques built in the decades immediately thereafter all followed the same simple pattern of the original mosque in Yathrib. For example, the Mosque in Kairouan in Tunisia (670) differs only dimensionally from the first mosque. As with all later mosques, the dualism of interior courtyard and prayer hall was maintained. The building had neither an external wall nor a main gate, but exhibited two new elements: the qibla wall and mihrab on the one hand, the minaret on the other. This tower was to become emblematic for mosques in general. The minaret was built on a square plan and topped with a ribbed dome. This form of mosque gradually acquired lasting validity throughout North Africa.
As the position of the Islamic rulers stabilised in the 7th and 8th centuries, they began to consider new forms. Keeping in mind the prohibition of figurative representation, they began to develop ornamentation. The design of the mihrab acquired ever more complex geometric structures; sumptuous decorations began to cover the surfaces of the prayer niche. Such decorations can be seen clearly in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria (705-715). Its basic form followed that of the original mosque but its vaulting, columns and windows gave it a magnificent appearance. It became a model for Islamic symbolism. As the central authority of the caliphate began to wane in the 11th and 12th centuries, their power was distributed among a series of new states that formed between Morocco and India. The change in political structure led to regional variations in the architecture of mosques. In the centuries that followed, diverse syntheses of Islamic and regional elements arose. Each Islamic state developed its stylistic identity, partly in response to local climate, partly with regard to locally available materials and traditional craftsmanship.
Geometric window pattern in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, 705-715
In Persia, the master builders integrated references to the four-iwan construction of the pre-Islamic palaces. The basic arrangement derives from four vaulted gates arranged axially around a courtyard in the form of a cross. This axial cross arrangement – which weakens the dominance of the qibla wall facing Mecca – was adopted throughout all provinces of the land. The Friday mosque at Isfahan is an example of the pinnacle of this development. More than any other building, it reflects the history of mosque architecture in Persia. Up until the 11th century, it retained the basic Arab arrangement of courtyard and hypostyle hall, before it was converted and rebuilt according to the four-iwan plan in the 12th century.
Friday mosque, Isfahan, late 11th century till 14th century, floor plan
The fascination with geometry was prevalent in Persia, too. The clarity of its rules were regarded as a metaphor: ornament in mosques became synonymous with the heavenly and eternal. To heighten the glory of the buildings still further, the architects embellished them with written script. In no other culture has calligraphy been refined to such extents. The clearly visible inscriptions express the words of God through verses from the Koran. Painstakingly applied by hand, numerous artistic scripts and inscriptions were created and used to decorate tiles, stones, walls, niches, domes, portals and minarets.
Imam Mosque, Isfahan, 17th century, ceramic ornamentation around the main entrance
Imam Mosque, Isfahan, 17th century, metal ornamentation on the entrance doorr
In the 11th century, Muslim warriors invaded India. After the fall of Peshawar, the path to the River Ganges lay open. The area was settled by Muslims and the Delhi Sultanate was founded. To declare the authority of Islam, a mosque was erected whose minaret was conceived as a symbol of conquest; after later extensions, the tower reached 72.5 metres into the sky. The mosque in Delhi and other buildings represent a distant continuation of older Persian forms.
The Islamic architecture of the Indian subcontinent became increasingly informed by the influence of local and regional building traditions and craftsmanship, in part brought in by Hindu workmen and builders. In the Delhi Sultanate, for example, the brickwork typically used throughout Persia was replaced by stone. In the 15th and 16th centuries, when India was under the reign of the Mughal Empire, one of the most important styles of Islamic architecture arose: a fusion of the Hindu and Islamic traditions, resulting in a mosque type with three domes and an extensive, walled courtyard. The Jama Masjid mosque in Delhi is an example of such a symbiosis. The decorative building has three imposing entrances, four short towers and two 40 metre high minarets longitudinally banded with red sandstone and white marble. Up to 25,000 believers can pray in its courtyard at one time.
As far back as the 9th century, Turks already played a role in Islamic politics as palace guards or governors. Like their neighbours, they too sought to find their own expression for their mosques. As a result, a new synthesis arose in Asia Minor. The plan was based – like the original mosque of the prophet – on a regular hypostyle hall. However, each square was covered with a small hemispherical dome, as can be seen, for example, in the Ulu Camii in Bursa, Turkey (1396-1400). Its compact outward appearance, 20 domes and two minarets give the building a particularly monumental appearance.
With the founding of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century, domes acquired greater importance. The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 heralded new trends in Turkish architecture. The Hagia Sophia Church, erected under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the 6th century, was converted into a mosque soon after the capture of the city on the Bosporus. The powerful urban presence of Hagia Sophia in the city inspired Koca Mimar Sinan, Suleiman II the Magnificent’s royal architect, to develop a Muslim counterpart to the genuine Christian original. With his design, the elements of the shell and dome acquired lasting importance and have become typical for mosques throughout the Ottoman Empire. Centralised cubic buildings were designed, crowned by a dome and surrounded by half-cupolas. The central space opened out onto a similar-sized courtyard of fountains surrounded by arcades covered with small domes. The prayer space was often emphasised through the elegant stacking of stepped half-cupolas, contrasting markedly with the needle-like minarets. With its six slender minarets, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul (1609-1617) – also known as the Blue Mosque – is regarded as one of the most spectacular achievements of its time.
Koca Mimar Sinan, Sultan Suleiman Mosque, Istanbul, 1548-1559, longitudinal section
At the beginning of the 20th century, Islamic architecture was confronted not only with a series of technical advances but also the increasing spread of western modern architecture. In addition, the commissioners of new large mosques often had personal and political agendas. Should the design of a mosque be based as far as possible on clear, pure forms? Should it perhaps, like the radical avant-garde in Europe, refrain from ornament altogether? Is it perhaps better, after all, to continue historical elements into the present day? Is it possible to find a golden mean between regional tradition on the one hand and modernist architecture on the other?
The most common response to the advancement of modernism was to demand that mosque architecture be kept free of western influences. This position has many supporters throughout all the Islamic nations. Many architects designed buildings using familiar architectonic forms, relying on traditional materials and forms of construction. Of these, one of the most well known was the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy, who throughout his lifetime upheld regional tradition and avoided modern western influences in his work. In his own research, he came to the conclusion that earth was the most appropriate building material for his home climate. His design for the mosque for the rural community of New-Gourna in Egypt (1945-48) was made of adobe brickwork. The Dar al Islam Mosque in Abiquiu, New Mexico (1981), used the same building methods, incorporating forms from Nubian architecture. Fathy’s work inspired many architects in the Islamic nations, for example Lassiné Minta’s Great Mosque of Niono, Mali (1973) whose earth construction resembles in many ways the Great Mosque in Djenné, Mali.
To maintain the purity of a particular regional architectural vocabulary, technical advances have been avoided in the construction of buildings. However, not all architects have been quite so stringent. The regionalism practised by many of those who spoke out in favour of historical continuity is, in fact, limited largely to formal language. For example, in the village mosque in Mahder, Algeria (1975-1980), the Egyptian architects Hanny and Abdel Rahman Miniawi refer to the local idiom through the character of the walls, arches and vaults while simultaneously using concrete for the construction.
The design of national mosques is fraught with further difficulties. Here, political interests can override all other factors: the patron’s desire to see his power set in stone. The 200 metre long and 100 metre wide King Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco (1986-1993) is such a mosque. It is the second largest place of worship in the world and can accommodate 25,000 people on three levels. The commission to design a building that was at once authentic as well as monumental was given to the French architect Michel Pinseau. Regional traditions are immediately apparent as soon as one sees the building. The minaret, the interior with its pattern of multifoil arches and the form of the capitals and vaulting refer to the Maghreb architecture of bygone centuries. However, the roof of the prayer hall, which can be opened hydraulically, and a laser beam pointed towards Mecca demonstrate that, for all its historical references, the possibilities of present day technology have not been ignored.
In addition to those mosques whose architects rely wholly on regional tradition, the design of other mosques reflects a dialogue between global tendencies and local particularities. The Al-Ghadir Mosque in Tehran, Iran, is a good example of this tension between continuity and transformation. Designed and built between 1977 and 1987 – the Islamic Revolution took place at the beginning of this period – the building by the architect Jahangir Mazlum employs neither the four-iwan arrangement nor dome and minaret. Instead, Mazlum crowned a dodecagonal prayer hall with a series of stacked and rotated squares that grow successively smaller with each level, creating the impression of a prismatic facetted dome. Although the ceiling mosaic and decorative stone borders with their glazed blue tiles and arabic script are traditionally found in Iranian buildings, they have a distinctly modern appearance when juxtaposed with the yellow brickwork.
The competition for the design of the Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, Indonesia (1955-1984), which took place soon after the nation was founded, asked not only for the design of a symbolic landmark but also stipulated the use of durable and locally available materials. The winning design by Frederich Silaban employs forms typical of monumental Soviet architecture and modern Turkish architecture. References to Ottoman architecture are not uncommon in Indonesia and this explains Silaban’s abstraction of the needle minaret.
Jahangir Mazlum, Al-Ghadir Mosque, Tehran, 1977-1987, concept sketch and floor plan
In other mosques a more critical attitude towards tradition can be seen. Kamran T. Diba, the architect of the buildings on the campus of Jondishapour University in Ahvaz, Iran (1971-1975), wanted to establish a specifically Iranian contribution to modernism. The complex, constructed of yellow brickwork, has no dome, no minaret and no ornamentation whatsoever on its walls. A few years later he designed a prayer room in the grounds of the Carpet Museum in Tehran (1978) in the form of two plain cubes open to the sky, one enclosing and one enclosed. The outer square relates to the geometry of the museum complex, the inner square is rotated to face towards Mecca. The mihrab is punctuated by a full-height vertical slot that penetrates the two walls of the concrete structure.
A more recent example of this kind of architecture is the plan for the extension to the pilgrimage destinations in Qom, Iran (2001). The architect Seyed Hadi Mirmiran was inspired by the visual phenomena and the values of his homeland. His design is modern but makes reference to natural forms, for example the waves formed by the wind in the desert sand or the surface of the nearby salt flats.
Seyed Hadi Mirmiran, Extension to the pilgrimage site, Qom, 2001, design
In a country such as Turkey that regards itself as being politically secular, it is not surprising when in the design of important architectural buildings both the commissioning body and the architect distance themselves from Ottoman tradition. This was the case with the building of a new mosque in the direct vicinity of Clemens Holzmeister’s National Assembly building in Ankara. Despite some protest, it was agreed early on that the mosque should have a modern character. The architects Altuğ, Behruz and Can Çiniçi designed a low, elongated building made of reinforced concrete with a stepped roof reminiscent of a low pyramid (1985-1989). There is no minaret, and the broad mihrab is formed out of clear, curved plexiglass. As a result, the prayer hall is illuminated almost entirely by light coming from the direction of Mecca.
In the Islamic nations, references to local traditions in the building of mosques are commonplace. Architectonic regionalism has, however, also been transported into the nations of the Diaspora, and the formal canons of Islamic nations from Morocco to India are upheld in Europe in particular. Erich Elingius and Gottfried Schramm’s design for the Shia Imam Ali Mosque in Hamburg (1960-1965), for instance, exhibits stronger parallels to traditional Muslim houses of worship in Iran than the Al-Ghadir Mosque in Tehran or the mosque on the campus at Jondishapour University in Ahvaz. Similarly, Hubert Geisler and Mehmed Bedri Sevinçsoy’s design for the Sunni Yavuz Sultan Selim Mosque in Mannheim (1995) is heavily influenced by the architectural vocabulary of the Ottoman Empire.
The height of the mosques in the Diaspora and their roof form is usually determined by the prevailing architectural conventions of the context, as neither of these is governed by any specific Islamic tradition. Tradition states simply that an open space for prayer sheltered by a roof is most appropriate. The spartan enclosure in the grounds of the Carpet Museum in Tehran and the elaborate high-tech roof over the courtyard of the King Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca could hardly contrast more, however both offer progressive solutions.
On the other hand, with regard to the position, form, height and number of minarets, regional traditions do provide a source of inspiration. For example, the two aforementioned West German mosques differ clearly in their approach. The mosque in Hamburg follows the Safavid tradition with two minarets, one on each side of its sizeable portal, whereas the mosque in Mannheim is flanked by only one minaret. The Sunni or Shia, Arab or Persian origin of a community is also displayed on the pinnacle of the minaret in the form of a half-moon or through walls decorated with the script of Allah. Such differences are sometimes also to be found in wall decorations elsewhere: the names of the first three Caliphs appear in Sunni mosques but never in Shia mosques.
Regardless of the architectonic aspirations of the design of mosque and regardless of whether it will be built in an Islamic nation, in a desert settlement or a city in the Diaspora, the prayer ritual is always the same.
Once the Muezzin chants the call to prayer, the faithful make their way to the mosque. They enter through the main entrance, in many cases into a vestibule. From there they pass through to a forecourt or roofed-over entrance hall where the paths of the men and women separate. If one wishes to speak with one’s god, it is necessary to first wash one’s face, arms, hands and feet. For this reason, fountains were of great importance in the very first mosques. Today, fountains for ablutions are still installed in front of the prayer hall, though nowadays their value is more aesthetic.
After the ritual washing, the believer is ready for prayer. The path to the prayer hall is, however, not a straight line. Instead, one is led indirectly – through the forecourt, corridors or stairs – gradually towards the entrance. Here both men and women take off their shoes, placing them in cupboards, racks or similar. In larger mosques there are separate cloakrooms for men and women. Wheelchair-bound believers are likewise allowed to pray and washing facilities for themselves and the wheels of their chair as well as separate entrances are not uncommon.
Some buildings provide separate entrances for men and women. These are never positioned on the qibla wall but at the sides opposite one another. From here, one can immediately see the mihrab without disrupting those already praying. Muslim believers enter the room, usually covered with carpets, and join the rows of those already praying behind the Imam. The rows are always parallel and face the qibla wall. The first row begins about 1.25 metres behind the Imam. The depth and width of the room can be calculated on the basis of this distance and the number of believers the hall should accommodate. The floor plan can follow any geometric form as long as it does not resemble that of another religion, e.g. not a cross or a six-pointed star. A rectangle oriented towards Mecca is still the most popular form and relates to the original mosque in Medina. Alternative solutions such as the polygon of the Al-Ghadir Mosque in Tehran or the rotunda of the Yavuz Sultan Selim Mosque in Mannheim are examples of other possible non-rectangular forms. Regardless of the floor plan, the mihrab should always be situated in the centre of the qibla wall.
Architects soon realised that the number of people taking part in prayers could be increased by expanding the prayer hall by using the ancillary spaces around it. In some mosques, in particular the large Friday mosques, it is even possible for people to pray in rows outside in the forecourt. In extreme circumstances, the street outside can be closed off and covered in mats, transforming the entire area into an open space for prayer.
The Imam takes up position in the mihrab – this niche is often also a little lower than the floor level of the prayer hall – and begins to intone prayers. The rows of believers behind him follow his lead. The prescribed separation of men and women is achieved in smaller mosques by allowing women to form rows behind the men. If the rows of men and women are arranged next to each other, curtains or screens can be used to separate the sexes. In larger mosques, more complex solutions with separate entrances for men and women are often used.
The formation of rows differs between the Sunni and Shia Muslims. While for the Shia, the rows must be connected to the Imam during congregational prayer, this contact is not absolutely essential for the Sunni mosques. In Sunni prayer houses there are sometimes several storeys or a gallery for women; in Shia mosques, extensions to the prayer hall to accommodate women are usually at the same level. Connection in this sense means that each Muslim can touch his or her neighbour – to the left and right as well as in front and behind – after prayers. The floor should therefore neither fall nor rise. The need to be able to hear the Imam’s prayer is achieved nowadays with the help of technical equipment.
Building a mosque in an Islamic nation, where the architect is required to mediate between regional and global ideas, remains a difficult task. In the lands of the Diaspora, this task can be even more difficult, as the recent discussions regarding Gottfried and Paul Böhm’s design for the mosque in Cologne have demonstrated (2006). Projects in Europe must unite what at first glance seems difficult to achieve: on the one hand the values and aspirations of the community, whose members often wish to see their new mosque resemble those of their homelands; on the other, the values and wishes of the local inhabitants, who often know little about the Muslim religion.
Paul Böhm, Cologne Mosque project, 2006, isometric view and southeast elevation
Selected Bibliography
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Originally published in: Rudolf Stegers, Sacred Buildings: A Design Manual, Birkhäuser, 2008.